Coinage of the despots

In Byzantium the right to strike coins belonged to the basileus, the emperor, and no separate issues of Byzantine despots are known. Balkan practice, however, was not entirely uniform: in Serbia, especially during the fifteenth century, rulers holding the title of despot issued money of their own. The Bulgarian and Dobrudjan evidence is scarcer and often disputed. It does not show that coinage was an established privilege of the despot, but instead reflects the political position of individual, nearly independent lords.

The earliest Bulgarian example is associated with Jacob Svetoslav, ruler of the Vidin region in the thirteenth century. Copper scyphate coins—pieces with a cup-shaped fabric—are attributed to him. In the original interpretation, one side showed a ruler in military dress accompanied by the abbreviated legend “des”/“skrt,” while the other depicted the Theotokos, or Virgin Mary. A more recent reading identifies St Demetrios of Thessaloniki on one side and the despot himself on the other. The ruler appears frontally with a stemma, sakkos, and loros—a crown, ceremonial tunic, and decorated imperial band—and carries a sword and shield. The abbreviated legends remain difficult to read, but the association with Jacob Svetoslav is widely accepted.

It has been suggested that these coins were distributed at Tarnovo during Jacob Svetoslav’s visit, when he was adopted by the empress and later killed on her orders. This explanation is plausible but cannot be demonstrated. The images and insignia can also be understood as expressions of imperial ambition. The appearance of St Demetrios is particularly significant because the saint carried powerful ideological associations for thirteenth-century Bulgarian rulers.

Jacob Svetoslav also possessed dynastic grounds for claims comparable to those of Constantine Asen, since he was married to a sister of John IV Laskaris. The word “despot” on the coins may therefore refer not only to his court title but also to the supreme dignity he had assumed. Byzantine emperors themselves continued to use despotes in the sense of “lord” on their coins into the fifteenth century.

Another secure case is Dobrotitsa, ruler of the land of Karvuna in the fourteenth century. His known coins belong to a single type: one side bears the Greek letter Δ, while the other has a large T surrounded by the letters K, Λ, A, and K. These signs are interpreted as abbreviations of “Δεσπότης Τομπρότιτζα” and “KAL(IA)K(RA),” referring to Despot Dobrotitsa and Kaliakra. Dobrotitsa can be called a Bulgarian despot only with qualification. His territories were not part of the Tarnovo Tsardom, his title came from Constantinople, and his policy was closely connected with Byzantium. His coins were therefore the issues of an autonomous ruler controlling much of the western Black Sea coast, not evidence that every despot possessed a general right to mint money.

A group of coins associated with the Terter dynasty is harder to identify. The copper specimens display a Terter dynastic monogram and a double-headed eagle; some are countermarked, meaning that an additional stamp was applied at a later date. They have been attributed to Tsar George Terter I, but this attribution has been seriously challenged. A unique silver coin discovered on the Danubian island of Păcuiul lui Soare is usually connected with the same group. It bears a double-headed eagle and an unclear Greek legend containing the name Terter, while the other side depicts Jesus Christ enthroned. A single specimen cannot securely identify the issuer or the political circumstances of the issue.

Another disputed group comes from the region of Silistra and Păcuiul lui Soare. These coins carry the word “Δεσπότου” in two or three lines and a cross on the reverse. They have been identified as issues of Ivanko, the son of Dobrotitsa, with the legend reconstructed as “Νομίσμα τοῦ δεσπότου Ἰωάννου τοῦ Τομπροτίζα.” Other proposed issuers include Ivan Alexander before his accession, Dobrotitsa, and Dobrotitsa’s son John Terter. A further interpretation finds the title despot and the name John Dobrotishta on the coins. The condition of the inscriptions and the absence of supporting evidence prevent a definitive resolution of the dispute.

A coin found at Skopje presents a separate problem. One side shows Christ enthroned, while the other bears two standing figures and the legend “ДЕСПОТЬ КОНСТАНДИНЬ” (“Despot Constantine”). It was originally attributed to Constantine Dragaš, but he did not hold the title of despot, making this identification untenable. Another candidate is Despot Constantine, the son-in-law of Ivan Alexander whose portrait appears in the London Gospels. He probably resided at the court in Tarnovo, however, and is unlikely to have issued a coin of his own that is attested only by a single specimen from Macedonia. The issuer remains unknown, while a Serbian origin appears most likely.

The coins of Jacob Svetoslav and Dobrotitsa did not inaugurate a continuous Bulgarian tradition of coinage by despots. Jacob Svetoslav ruled almost independently in the northwestern Bulgarian lands, manoeuvred between Tarnovo and Hungary, and advanced imperial claims; some features of his coin imagery have closer Western parallels. Dobrotitsa likewise struck money as an effective sovereign rather than merely as the holder of an honorific title. The position of the Serbian despots in the fifteenth century was similar, since the title was then held by the rulers of the state.

Coinage therefore does not reveal a fundamental institutional difference between the Byzantine and Balkan despot. It reflects differing degrees of political autonomy. The evidence provides isolated examples from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, but it establishes neither a continuous institution nor a precise date for its disappearance.

In Byzantium, the right to make coins belonged to the basileus, the emperor, and there are no known separate coin issues of Byzantine despots. Practice in the Balkans was not completely the same everywhere, though. In Serbia, especially during the fifteenth century, rulers who held the title of despot did issue their own money. The evidence from Bulgaria and Dobrudja is much thinner and often debated. It does not show that coinage was a normal privilege of the despot. Instead, it points to the political situation of individual lords who were almost independent.

The earliest Bulgarian example is linked with Jacob Svetoslav, who ruled the Vidin region in the thirteenth century. Copper scyphate coins, that is, coins with a cup-shaped form, are attributed to him. In the first interpretation, one side showed a ruler in military dress with the shortened legend “des”/“skrt,” while the other showed the Theotokos, or Virgin Mary. A more recent reading sees St Demetrios of Thessaloniki on one side and the despot himself on the other. The ruler is shown facing forward, wearing a stemma, sakkos, and loros, meaning a crown, a ceremonial tunic, and a decorated imperial band, and he holds a sword and shield. The short inscriptions are still hard to read, but the link with Jacob Svetoslav is widely accepted.

It has been argued that these coins were handed out at Tarnovo during Jacob Svetoslav’s visit, when the empress adopted him and later had him killed on her orders. This is possible, but it cannot be proved. The designs and symbols may also express imperial ambition. The use of St Demetrios is especially important, since the saint had strong political meaning for Bulgarian rulers in the thirteenth century.

Jacob Svetoslav also had family reasons to claim a status like that of Constantine Asen, since he was married to a sister of John IV Laskaris. The word “despot” on the coins may therefore point not just to his court title, but also to the highest rank he had taken on. Byzantine emperors themselves still used despotes in the sense of “lord” on their coins into the fifteenth century.

Another case that seems secure is Dobrotitsa, ruler of the land of Karvuna in the fourteenth century. His known coins belong to one type only. One side has the Greek letter Δ, and the other has a large T surrounded by the letters K, Λ, A, and K. These signs are taken as short forms of “Δεσπότης Τομπρότιτζα” and “KAL(IA)K(RA),” which refer to Despot Dobrotitsa and Kaliakra. Dobrotitsa can be called a Bulgarian despot only with care. His lands were not part of the Tarnovo Tsardom, his title came from Constantinople, and his policy was closely tied to Byzantium. His coins were therefore the money of a ruler who acted on his own and controlled much of the western Black Sea coast. They do not prove that every despot had a general right to mint coins.

A group of coins linked to the Terter dynasty is harder to identify. The copper pieces show a Terter dynastic monogram, a stylized family letter sign, and a double-headed eagle; some are countermarked, meaning that a new stamp was added later. They have been assigned to Tsar George Terter I, but this identification has been strongly questioned. A unique silver coin found on the Danubian island of Păcuiul lui Soare is usually tied to the same group. It has a double-headed eagle and a hard-to-read Greek inscription containing the name Terter, while the other side shows Jesus Christ enthroned. One coin cannot firmly tell us who issued it or under what political conditions it was made.

Another disputed group comes from the region of Silistra and Păcuiul lui Soare. These coins carry the word “Δεσπότου” in two or three lines and a cross on the reverse. They have been identified as issues of Ivanko, the son of Dobrotitsa, with the inscription rebuilt as “Νομίσμα τοῦ δεσπότου Ἰωάννου τοῦ Τομπροτίζα.” Other suggested issuers are Ivan Alexander before he became ruler, Dobrotitsa, and Dobrotitsa’s son John Terter. A further reading sees the title despot and the name John Dobrotishta on the coins. Because the inscriptions are in poor condition and there is no outside evidence, the question cannot be settled firmly.

A coin found at Skopje raises a different problem. One side shows Christ enthroned, while the other has two standing figures and the legend “ДЕСПОТЬ КОНСТАНТИНЬ” (“Despot Constantine”). It was first assigned to Constantine Dragaš, but he never held the title of despot, so that identification does not work. Another possibility is Despot Constantine, the son-in-law of Ivan Alexander, whose portrait appears in the London Gospels. He probably lived at the court in Tarnovo, though, and it is unlikely that he issued a coin of his own known only from a single find in Macedonia. The issuer is still unknown, but a Serbian origin seems most likely.

The coins of Jacob Svetoslav and Dobrotitsa did not create a lasting Bulgarian tradition of despot coinage. Jacob Svetoslav ruled almost on his own in the northwestern Bulgarian lands, balanced between Tarnovo and Hungary, and pressed imperial claims; some parts of his coin imagery also have closer Western parallels. Dobrotitsa also issued money as a ruler in practice, not just as someone holding an honorary title. The situation of the Serbian despots in the fifteenth century was similar, because the title then belonged to the rulers of the state.

Coinage, then, does not show a basic institutional difference between the Byzantine and Balkan despot. It shows different levels of political freedom. The evidence gives us isolated examples from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, but it does not establish a continuous institution or a clear date when it ended.

In Byzantium, only the emperor could make coins. In the Balkans, this was not always true. In Serbia in the 1400s, some rulers with the title of despot did make their own money. In Bulgaria and Dobrudja, the evidence is small and often uncertain.

The earliest possible Bulgarian case is Jacob Svetoslav, who ruled the Vidin area in the 1200s. Some copper coins are linked to him, but the details are hard to read. Even so, they seem to show a ruler trying to look powerful, not a normal right that every despot had.

A clearer case is Dobrotitsa, who ruled Karvuna in the 1300s. His coins show that he acted like an almost independent ruler on the western Black Sea coast. Other coins from places like Silistra, Păcuiul lui Soare, and Skopje are too doubtful to prove much. So these coins show local power and independence, not a fixed rule that all despots could mint money.