Battle of Skafida

After ascending to the Bulgarian throne, George I Terter faced growing feudal separatism, which seriously undermined the unity of the state. In various regions of the country, local boyars began to establish themselves as independent rulers, distancing themselves from the central authority in Tarnovo. In the Braničevo region, the two brothers Darman and Kudelin established their independence, creating quasi-sovereign domains that did not submit to the royal administration. To the east of the Timok River, the boyar Shishman raised his own power, with his residence in the city of Vidin. By the end of the 13th century, Shishman was already the lord of a significant territory in northwestern Bulgaria and acted completely independently from the Tarnovo government, demonstrating how weakened the central authority had become.

Simultaneously, the lands in the Sredna Gora region and along the upper course of the Maritsa River up to the city of Sliven also broke away from central control. These areas were governed by the boyar Smilets and his brothers Voysil and Radoslav, who also enjoyed considerable autonomy. This fragmentation of the state created conditions for internal instability and facilitated external invasions.

In 1285, Bulgaria was attacked by the Tatars, which further complicated the political situation. To preserve his throne, George I Terter undertook a diplomatic move by sending his daughter to the harem of Chaka, son of Nogai, one of the Tatar rulers. At the same time, George’s son, Theodore Svetoslav, was taken hostage by the Tatars, which turned the tsar into a vassal of the Golden Horde. This vassal dependence was a forced measure for the survival of the Bulgarian state under strong external pressure.

In 1291, during a new Tatar invasion, George Terter I was forced to flee to Byzantium, and the boyar Smilets was placed on the Bulgarian throne, ruling from 1292 to 1298 as a puppet of the Tatars. After Smilets’ death, power passed into the hands of Chaka, son of Khan Nogai, who was also installed by the Golden Horde. Nevertheless, Chaka was killed in battle against Tokhtai, the khan of the Golden Horde, which opened the way for the restoration of Bulgarian independence.

At this critical moment, George I Terter’s son, Theodore Svetoslav, organized a conspiracy against Chaka. As a result of this plot, Chaka was killed, and power passed into the hands of Theodore Svetoslav, who ruled from 1300 to 1321. The Tarnovo boyars chose him as tsar, demonstrating the support of the local aristocracy for the restoration of central authority.

Theodore Svetoslav succeeded in establishing friendly relations with the Tatars of the Golden Horde, which ensured stability on Bulgaria’s northern borders and reduced external pressure. He enhanced the authority of the central government and dealt with internal enemies who threatened the unity of the state. At the same time, he directed his efforts against Byzantium, which continued to foment internal strife in Bulgaria, attempting to weaken the Bulgarian state and expand its own influence.

This period was crucial for the restoration of Bulgarian statehood after long years of internal and external crises. The ascension of George I Terter and later Theodore Svetoslav marked a transition from fragmentation to centralization and strengthening of state power, despite numerous challenges from feudal separatism and foreign invasions.

In 1304, the Bulgarian ruler Theodore Svetoslav launched a large-scale offensive into Thrace, which proved to be a significant stage in the struggle for control over this region. He received support from his uncle Eltimir, who at that time governed the territories around Krun (Крън). This assistance was crucial for the success of the campaign, as Eltimir possessed local resources and troops that aided the rapid expansion of Bulgarian influence in Thrace.

Near the site of the battle at Skafida there was a significant bridge spanning the strait connecting Lake Mandrensko. Byzantine chroniclers referred to this waterway as the Skafida River, emphasizing its strategic role as a control point over the water route. The Škorpil brothers provided a detailed description of the remains of this bridge, noting the foundations of an impressive structure built from rubble stone bonded with white mortar. According to their measurements, the bridge was 6.10 meters long and 3.80 meters wide, and its presumed vaulted form attested to the high engineering skill invested in its construction. Unfortunately, the foundations of the bridge were destroyed in the early 20th century during the construction of a new road, representing a loss for the historical heritage of the region. The sturdy construction of the bridge indicates that its creation was planned and executed by the Bulgarians, demonstrating their strategic thinking and technical abilities in strengthening important communication links.

After the Byzantine army was defeated in the battle at Skafida, the Bulgarians showed mercy by releasing all prisoners except for the nobles. This humane act by Tsar Theodore Svetoslav not only demonstrated compassion but also had strategic significance. It is believed that this policy of clemency opened the gates of the fortresses of Anchialos and Agathopolis without a fight, leading to their surrender to the Bulgarians. Later, during negotiations, the Bulgarian ruler demanded only the formal legalization of the incorporation of these fortresses into the borders of the Bulgarian state, showing that he sought stable and lawful territorial expansion rather than indiscriminate conquest.

In Constantinople, news of the Bulgarian successes caused alarm and unrest. The Byzantines summoned new troops but faced shortages of weapons and clothing for the recruits. In this critical situation, Emperor Michael took decisive measures—he ordered many of his gold and silver items in the capital to be melted down to raise funds. This process was carried out very quickly, demonstrating the urgency and seriousness of the situation. The collected resources allowed Michael to form an army of thousands, with which he marched to Adrianople with great confidence, ready to confront the Bulgarian threat and restore Byzantine influence in the region.

After the battle of Skafida, the Bulgarian troops, laden with rich booty, undertook a retreat. This move was dictated by the necessity to preserve the acquired property and to avoid further exhaustion of their forces. Despite the withdrawal, the Byzantine (Roman) troops managed to capture a number of key Black Sea fortresses, which significantly altered the military-political situation in the region.

The Byzantines devastated the vast area stretching from Konsis, located in the region of present-day Sopot in Karlovo district, to Stilnos, near Sliven, and Ryakhovo, situated by the village of Oryahovitsa in Stara Zagora district. This territory was of strategic importance, as it included important fortified points and controlled routes to the interior of Bulgaria.

A particularly central place in this area was occupied by the fortress of Stilnos, which was the main stronghold of a large fortified complex composed of nine additional fortresses. This complex of fortifications provided control and protection of the region, while simultaneously serving as a base for military operations and surveillance.

The local population knew the fortress of Stilnos by the name Hisarkale, which suggests its historical significance and long-term use. The researcher P. Deligradev described the fortress as located in the area called Hisaraluka, which corresponds with archaeological data and its geographical position.

The fortress was situated about 500 meters northeast of Novo Selo, a district of the city of Sliven. It occupied an elevation rising 50 meters above the surrounding terrain, which provided a strategic advantage in defense and observation of the vicinity.

The area of the fortress was approximately 20–25 decares (2–2.5 hectares), making it a significant military and administrative center. From the west, the fortress was protected by the steep bank of the Novoselska River, which further enhanced its defensive capability and complicated any potential attacks from that direction.

After Bulgaria’s liberation from Ottoman rule, the fortress of Stilnos was visited by the Czech historian and archaeologist Konstantin Jireček, who left valuable descriptions of its condition and significance. Later, the fortress was studied by the Škorpil brothers, who contributed to its systematic research and documentation.

During their visits and investigations, the fortress walls rose about 4 meters above the ground, which attests to their good preservation and impressive construction. Unfortunately, nowadays these walls have been erased, likely due to natural and human factors, which complicates archaeological research.

Inside the fortress stood a church measuring 7–8 meters in length, 4–5 meters in width, and 2–3 meters in depth. It was faced with polished marble, indicating its high status and importance for the local population and military garrisons. This church probably served both religious needs and the strengthening of the morale of the fortress defenders.

The Maglizh fortress represents a strong and well-fortified military structure, located in the key area of the Maglizh Pass. It is situated on the height known as Gornenski Grad, a rounded ridge with an elevation of about 700 meters above sea level. This height lies approximately 6 kilometers north of the town of Maglizh, which gives it strategic significance for controlling the surrounding area and the road connecting Tarnovgrad (Veliko Tarnovo) with Boruy (modern Stara Zagora).

The slopes of the Gornenski Grad height descend steeply towards the rivers Stara Reka and Elovitsa, providing natural protection for the fortress from the western side. This natural barrier hinders any attempts at surprise attacks or sieges from that direction. The fortress blocks the Maglizh Pass, making it a key stronghold for controlling movement through this important route.

The equipment of the fortress is impressive. The Gornenski Grad height is encircled by a fortress wall that follows the configuration of the terrain, adapting to the natural forms of the landscape. At the northwestern end of the height, there is a second fortress wall enclosing the citadel—the central and most strongly fortified part of the fortress. This double system of walls reinforces the defense and makes the fortress difficult to capture.

The total area of the Maglizh fortress is about 18 decares (1.8 hectares), making it a significant fortified node. The fortress walls are built of rubble stone bonded with white mortar, ensuring their strength and durability. The outer wall is about 2 meters thick, while the inner wall is approximately 1.5 meters thick. Remains of the outer wall up to 3 meters high have been preserved, testifying to the impressive scale of the construction and the quality of the materials used.

The Maglizh fortress is not isolated but is part of a fortified complex that includes two other nearby fortresses. About 4 kilometers east of Maglizh lies another fortress situated on a huge rock above the Gabrovitsa River. This fortress is known among the local population as Dolnenski Grad. It covers an area of about 2 decares (0.2 hectares) and is also built with walls approximately 2 meters thick made of rubble stone bonded with mortar. Remains of the fortress wall up to 1 meter high have been preserved to this day. From this fortress, there is a wide view over the Tulovo Field, which gives it a strategic advantage for observation and control of the area.

Furthermore, in the Gramada neighborhood of Maglizh, near the Stara Reka, remains of fortress walls have been found. Although these remains are small in size, they are also constructed of rubble stone bonded with mortar and have a thickness of about 2 meters. This indicates that this part of the area was also fortified, probably as additional protection or an observation point.

All these fortifications together create a powerful defensive complex that controls important roads and passes in the Maglizh region. Their construction and location testify to the strategic importance of this region in the context of the military actions around the Battle of Skafida. The Maglizh fortress and the neighboring fortifications are key to ensuring control and protection of the territory, which is crucial for the success of military operations in this area.

The fortress of Rakhovo, also known as Ryakhovitsa, rises on a hill at the northwestern edge of the village of Oryahovitsa, in the Stara Zagora region. It occupies an area of about 4 decares, making it relatively compact but strategically important. Today, only minor ruins remain, but archaeological data show that its walls were built of rubble stone bonded with mortar, which testifies to its serious defensive function. Its location on a hill provides a wide view, especially to the south, allowing control over the surroundings and observation of approaching enemy forces.

The fortress of Rakhovo played a key role in blocking the defile of the Stara River. This defile is an important passage, as it allows access to the valley of the Tundzha River. From there, through the Republic Pass, one reaches Tarnovgrad – the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Control over Rakhovo meant control over this strategic route, which explains why the Byzantines sought to capture the fortress.

Despite the efforts of the Byzantines, they failed to take Rakhovo and other strong Bulgarian fortresses in the region. Nevertheless, they inflicted devastation in the surroundings but did not remain unpunished for these actions. A local tradition tells of a great battle that took place near the fortress of Rakhovo. The historian Konstantin Jireček attributes this battle to the period of conflicts between Bulgarians and Byzantines under discussion.

According to the tradition, in the battle near Rakhovo, so much blood was shed that a calf drowned in it, which is a vivid figurative expression of the cruelty and scale of the battle. After this battle, the Byzantines quickly retreated to Adrianople (Odrin), which shows that their defeat was serious and they could not hold their positions in the area.

The reason for the retreat of the Roman (Byzantine) forces was that they did not have sufficient strength for prolonged fighting against the Bulgarians. Nevertheless, the Bulgarians managed to maintain their superiority, even after Eltimir withdrew from the alliance with Svetoslav. This fact underscores the strength and resilience of the Bulgarian state during this period.

The Byzantine Emperor Michael was forced to call for the assistance of mercenary Catalan troops to reinforce his army. Despite this, the leader of the Catalan troops was killed in battle, which demoralized and disorganized the mercenaries. After the death of their leader, the Catalan troops withdrew, leaving the Byzantines in an even more unfavorable position.

This series of failures forced Andronikos II to conclude peace with the Tarnovo ruler Theodore Svetoslav at the beginning of 1305. Theodore Svetoslav undertook active measures against Eltimir, taking the Krun region from him and giving it to another boyar, which strengthened his power and influence in the region.

Meanwhile, the Turks struck and conquered most of the Byzantine possessions in Asia Minor. These losses exhausted the Roman state and placed it in a difficult position. As a result, the Romans were forced to recognize the territorial acquisitions of Theodore Svetoslav in Coastal Thrace, which was a significant success for the Bulgarian state.

In the spring of 1307, a new treaty was concluded between the Romans and Theodore Svetoslav, which consolidated the achieved territorial changes and stabilized relations between the two sides. This treaty was the result of military actions and diplomatic efforts that followed the battle at Skafida and the battle near the fortress of Rakhovo.

After the death of Theodore Svetoslav, which occurred before 1321, his son George II Terter ascended the throne of Tarnovo in the same year. Despite his short reign, which lasted until 1322, George II Terter undertook active military operations aimed at restoring Bulgarian control over important territories, including the Plovdiv and Rhodope regions. These areas were strategically significant for Bulgaria, as Plovdiv was a large and populous city, defended by well-organized infantry and cavalry, situated in a convenient location and, according to the Byzantine chronicler John Kantakouzenos, the most self-satisfied city on the continent.

After the siege machine was built and equipped, the heavily armed soldiers together with the men who were to move the tower were lined up for the attack. The rest of the army, with raised banners and to the sound of the trumpet, rushed against the fortress, beginning a decisive assault. This moment marked the climax of the siege, in which the Roman (Byzantine) army used all available means to break the Bulgarian defense and regain control over Plovdiv.

During the course of the battle of Skafida, one of the key tactical operations involved the use of a siege tower, which was moved up to the defenders' fortress wall. This tower served as a mobile platform from which the Byzantine archers fired arrows with great intensity, creating a veritable hail of arrows that caused significant losses among the fortress defenders. Under the barrage, they were forced to take cover behind the fortress wall itself, seeking protection from the continuous arrow fire.

According to the chronicle of Michael Kantakouzenos, the tower managed to break through the wooden framework of an old and forgotten cistern located near the wall. However, a more thorough analysis of the situation and the construction features of fortresses suggests that it is more likely the tower broke through a well-camouflaged moat rather than a cistern. This is supported by the fact that cisterns were usually built only inside fortresses, not near the outer walls, which makes Kantakouzenos’s version less credible.

During the attempt to break through, the tower sank into the moat, which significantly limited its mobility and effectiveness. This incident resulted in the siege tower failing to fulfill its primary purpose—to provide cover and facilitate the penetration of Byzantine troops through the fortress wall.

As a result of this failure, the Roman assault was interrupted, since the loss of tactical advantage and the difficulties in using the siege equipment discouraged the attackers. After the assault was halted, the Byzantine forces withdrew, marking a temporary cessation of active combat in this part of the battle. This episode clearly illustrates the difficulties faced by the besieging forces in their attempts to overcome the well-fortified Bulgarian fortresses.