Conferral of the title of despot

The despot held one of the highest court dignities in the Byzantine hierarchy and in the Orthodox systems derived from it. The title belonged to the individual recipient and normally remained with him until death. It was not hereditary and could be granted only by a tsar or basileus, that is, a ruler of imperial rank. The Bulgarian evidence reveals no substantial departure from these principles.

A person therefore cannot be identified as a despot merely because his father, son, or another relative held the dignity. Such unsupported titulature has sometimes been attributed to Shishman, the ruler of Vidin, and to his son Belaur. The claim that a king could ordinarily create despots is equally uncertain. A Serbian chronicle states that King Vukašin gave his brother John Uglješa Greek territories and the title of despot, but this report probably reflects a later understanding of the actual distribution of power at the court of Tsar Uroš rather than an established change in the rules governing the dignity.

The Byzantine treatise of Pseudo-Kodinos associates the title primarily with the basileus’s closest relatives—his sons, brothers, and sons-in-law. In practice, this group was never entirely closed. During the fourteenth century its limits were disregarded with increasing frequency, as the title gradually lost some of its exclusiveness. A wider range of people became despots in Bulgaria and Serbia than the Constantinopolitan model envisaged, but this did not alter the personal and lifelong nature of the dignity or the basic rule that it was conferred by an emperor.

Pseudo-Kodinos describes a secular court ceremony for the installation of a despot. It took place in the triklinos, a ceremonial hall containing the imperial throne, which was initially concealed by a silk curtain. The future despot put on the garments and insignia appropriate to his rank, while the basileus appeared wearing his crown and the full imperial regalia. When the curtain opened, those present performed a polychronion, a solemn acclamation wishing the ruler many years. Two of the highest dignitaries led the recipient before the throne, where the standing basileus pronounced the formula: “My imperial majesty raises you to despot!”

After another acclamation, the despot kissed the ruler’s foot and received a coronet from his hands. Its form depended on the recipient’s relationship to the emperor. The coronet of an imperial son had four small arches set with precious stones—at the front, back, and both sides—whereas that of a ruler’s son-in-law had only one arch at the front. The curtain was then closed and the basileus withdrew. The ceremony closely resembled a ruler’s coronation, thereby emphasizing the despot’s exceptionally high rank without making him equal to the emperor.

An ecclesiastical rite is attested alongside the court ceremony. In this form, the recipient was brought before a hierarch, meaning a senior churchman, who read a special prayer. The text presented the selection of the new dignitary as part of divine providence, prayed for his future welfare, and urged him not to depart from the righteous path. The ruler’s hierarchical decision thus received religious sanction and was incorporated into the Christian conception of a social order established by God.

The earliest surviving Slavonic copy of this prayer appears in a Bulgarian manuscript of the Synodikon from the late fourteenth century, when the dignity of despot still had a real place in the political life of the empire. Related texts were also used in Serbia during the fifteenth century. They were not merely mechanical translations. The Greek model was intended for the older high dignities of caesar, nobelissimos, and kouropalates and did not mention the despot at all.

Changes made in the Slavonic versions adapted the prayers to the later system of titles and support the conclusion that the rite was actually used at Tarnovo and Skopje. The Bulgarian court evidently sought to follow Constantinople, although its ceremony probably did not reproduce the imperial ritual in every detail. Byzantine influence was strengthened by the fact that several Balkan despots received their dignity directly from a Roman basileus.

Exceptional cases are known, but they date mainly from the period after the destruction of the Byzantine Empire. George Sphrantzes reports that in 1465 Pope Paul II conferred the title of despot on Andreas Palaiologos, the eldest son of Despot Thomas Palaiologos. The Roman Curia probably regarded the father’s title as the basis of the son’s claim, but the act of conferral itself shows that the dignity was not thought to pass automatically by inheritance. Since the appointment took place more than a decade after the fall of Constantinople, it can be interpreted as a papal claim to assume part of the imperial legacy.

The Hungarian kings’ conferral of despot titles on members of the last Serbian ruling families between the second half of the fifteenth century and the middle of the sixteenth had a similar significance. This practice began only after 1453, when no Byzantine basileus remained in Constantinople. Amid the Ottoman advance, the Kingdom of Hungary presented itself as a leading power in the defence and political ordering of the Balkans; its assumption of the right to create despots also expressed a claim to part of the political tradition of Constantinople.

As a general rule, a title could not be revoked once it had been granted. Since dignities were personal and lifelong, promotion to a higher title did not cancel an earlier one. A single person could accumulate several ranks without formally losing those previously received. Inheritance, conferral by a non-imperial ruler, and deprivation of the dignity were therefore not normal features of the system, and any claim that they occurred requires direct and unambiguous evidence.

The title of despot was one of the highest court ranks in the Byzantine world and in the Orthodox systems that grew out of it. It belonged to one person, not a family line, and it usually stayed with that person until death. It was not inherited, and only a tsar or basileus — that is, a ruler with imperial rank — could grant it. The Bulgarian evidence does not show any major break from these rules.

So a man cannot be called a despot simply because his father, son, or another relative had the title. Yet this kind of unsupported use of the title has sometimes been linked to Shishman, the ruler of Vidin, and to his son Belaur. The idea that a king could normally create despots is just as doubtful. A Serbian chronicle says that King Vukašin gave his brother John Uglješa Greek lands and the title of despot, but this story probably reflects a later view of how power was really divided at the court of Tsar Uroš, not a real change in the rules for the title.

Pseudo-Kodinos, a Byzantine writer on court practice, connects the title mainly with the basileus’s nearest relatives: his sons, brothers, and sons-in-law. In practice, though, this circle was never completely closed. During the fourteenth century, the limits were ignored more and more often, and the title slowly became less exclusive. In Bulgaria and Serbia, more people became despots than the Constantinopolitan model allowed, but this did not change the fact that the title was personal, lasted for life, and was still supposed to come from an emperor.

Pseudo-Kodinos also gives a secular court ceremony for appointing a despot. It took place in the triklinos, a ceremonial hall with the imperial throne, which was first hidden behind a silk curtain. The future despot dressed in the clothes and symbols of his new rank, while the basileus appeared with his crown and full imperial regalia. When the curtain was opened, the people present sang a polychronion, a formal cry wishing the ruler many years. Then two of the highest officials led the new despot to the throne, where the standing basileus said, “My imperial majesty raises you to despot!”

After another acclamation, the despot kissed the ruler’s foot and received a coronet from his hands. Its shape depended on the man’s relationship to the emperor. A coronet for an imperial son had four small arches set with precious stones — at the front, back, and both sides — while the coronet for a ruler’s son-in-law had only one arch at the front. Then the curtain was closed and the basileus left. The ceremony strongly resembled a ruler’s coronation, which made the despot’s rank look extremely high without putting him on the emperor’s level.

There was also a church rite alongside the court ceremony. In this version, the recipient was brought before a hierarch, meaning a senior churchman, who read a special prayer. The prayer said that the new dignitary had been chosen by divine providence, asked for his future well-being, and warned him not to leave the right path. In this way, the ruler’s decision gained religious approval and was folded into the Christian idea of an order in society created by God.

The oldest surviving Slavonic copy of this prayer appears in a Bulgarian manuscript of the Synodikon from the late fourteenth century, when the title of despot still had real political importance in the empire. Similar texts were also used in Serbia during the fifteenth century. These were not simple word-for-word translations. The Greek original was meant for the older high titles of caesar, nobelissimos, and kouropalates, and it did not mention the despot at all.

The changes made in the Slavonic versions adjusted the prayers to the later system of titles and support the view that the rite was actually used at Tarnovo and Skopje. The Bulgarian court clearly wanted to follow Constantinople, even if its ceremony probably did not match the imperial ritual in every detail. Byzantine influence was also strengthened by the fact that several Balkan despots received their dignity directly from a Roman basileus.

There are a few unusual cases, but most belong to the time after the destruction of the Byzantine Empire. George Sphrantzes says that in 1465 Pope Paul II gave the title of despot to Andreas Palaiologos, the oldest son of Despot Thomas Palaiologos. The Roman Curia probably saw the father’s title as the basis for the son’s claim, but the very act of granting the title shows that it was not thought to pass automatically through inheritance. Since this appointment came more than a decade after the fall of Constantinople, it can be read as a papal claim to take over part of the imperial legacy.

A similar meaning lay behind the Hungarian kings’ granting of the title of despot to members of the last Serbian ruling families between the second half of the fifteenth century and the middle of the sixteenth. This began only after 1453, when no Byzantine basileus was left in Constantinople. As the Ottomans advanced, the Kingdom of Hungary presented itself as a leading power in defending and organizing the Balkans politically; by claiming the right to create despots, it also claimed part of Constantinople’s political tradition.

As a general rule, once a title had been granted, it could not be taken back. Because dignities were personal and lasted for life, receiving a higher rank did not cancel an earlier one. One man could gather several ranks without formally giving up the ones he had already received. So inheritance, grant by a non-imperial ruler, and removal of the dignity were not normal parts of the system, and any claim that they happened must be backed by direct and clear evidence.

A despot was one of the highest titles in the Byzantine world. It was personal and usually lasted for life. It was not passed on to children, and it was normally given only by an emperor.

This title was often given to close family members of the emperor, but not always. In Bulgaria and Serbia, some rulers gave it to more people than Constantinople did, but the main rules stayed the same. A man did not become a despot just because his father or son had been one.

The title was given with a special court ceremony and a church prayer. These rites showed that the new despot had very high rank, but was still below the emperor. Bulgarian and Serbian courts seem to have followed this model.

After Constantinople fell in 1453, other rulers also began giving out the title. The pope and the kings of Hungary did this for some Balkan princes. This showed that they wanted to take over part of the old imperial role.