Division of the Empire (1355–1371)

In the mid-14th century, the Second Bulgarian Empire faced significant challenges both internally and externally. The reign of Ivan Alexander (1331–1371) was marked by intermittent warfare, shifting alliances, and the gradual erosion of centralized power. His death in 1371 precipitated the division of the empire among his sons, notably Ivan Shishman and Ivan Sratsimir, who ruled the Tarnovo and Vidin regions respectively, effectively splitting the empire into separate political entities.

During this period, the Ottoman Turks established a foothold on the Balkans, beginning with their landing on the peninsula in 1352 and subsequent conquests such as Dimotika (1359–1361) and Adrianople (1368–1369). The Bulgarian rulers struggled to respond effectively to this new threat, often preoccupied with internal dissent and conflicts with neighboring powers like Hungary and Byzantium. The battle of Chernomen in 1371 was a decisive Ottoman victory that forced Ivan Shishman to retreat north of the Balkan Mountains and negotiate vassalage to Sultan Murad I, marking the beginning of Ottoman suzerainty over Bulgaria.

The empire’s fragmentation was further exacerbated by the rise of autonomous regional rulers such as Momchil in the Rhodopes and Dobrotitsa in the Dobruja region. Dobrotitsa, in particular, emerged as a significant political figure, expanding his domain and engaging in diplomatic relations with Venice and Genoa, thereby asserting a degree of independence from Tarnovo. Meanwhile, the Vidin despotate under Ivan Sratsimir experienced Hungarian occupation from 1365 to 1369, reflecting the complex interplay of regional powers vying for influence in Bulgarian lands.

Relations with Byzantium were complex and often antagonistic. Bulgarian involvement in Byzantine civil wars (1341–1347) and conflicts over ecclesiastical authority, exemplified by the 1361 dispute between the Tarnovo and Constantinople patriarchates, underscored the empire’s weakened position. The Bulgarian Church’s refusal to conform to Constantinople’s canonical demands reflected its assertion of independence despite political fragmentation.

The internal political landscape was characterized by a struggle between central authority and separatist nobility, with the Tarnovo tsar acting as 'first among equals' among several semi-independent principalities. This decentralization weakened the empire’s capacity to mount a unified defense against external threats. The period also saw the continuation of cultural and spiritual life, with Tarnovo reaching a peak in literary and artistic achievements despite the looming military and political crises.

The decade following Ivan Alexander’s death was marked by relative calm north of the Balkans but increasing Ottoman control over southern and western Bulgarian territories. The loss of key cities such as Sofia (1385) and the eventual fall of Tarnovo (1393) and Vidin (1396) to the Ottomans signaled the end of Bulgarian independence. The execution of Ivan Shishman in 1395 epitomized the tragic demise of the empire’s ruling dynasty.

Throughout this turbulent era, Bulgaria’s geopolitical position was shaped by the ambitions of neighboring states—Hungary, Serbia, Byzantium—and the inexorable advance of the Ottoman Turks. The empire’s division and decline were thus the result of both internal fragmentation and overwhelming external pressures, culminating in its absorption into the Ottoman realm by the end of the 14th century.