Fall of Tarnovo

In 1388, Ali Pasha, an Ottoman commander, invaded the Bulgarian city of Tarnovo with a large army that mercilessly plundered the city. This devastating defeat not only destroyed a significant part of the urban infrastructure but also led to the enslavement of numerous men and women, a common practice during Ottoman conquests. After capturing Tarnovo, the Ottomans left garrisons in the fortresses to strengthen their control over the region and to prevent possible uprisings or attempts to reclaim the territory.

In the early hours of the day, before the start of the decisive battle of Kosovo Field, the Serbian nobleman Miloš Obilić undertakes a bold and cunning action. He manages to penetrate the tent of the Ottoman Sultan Murad I, who ruled from 1362 to 1389. This daring deed is extremely risky, but Miloš uses a moment of confusion and cover to approach the sultan. At a decisive moment, he kills Murad I, delivering a heavy blow to the Ottoman command and morale.

After the death of Sultan Murad I, command of the Ottoman forces is taken over by his son Bayezid I, who would rule from 1389 to 1402. This sudden change at the top of Ottoman power creates tension, but Bayezid quickly manages to take control and organize the army for the upcoming battle.

The battle begins with intense arrow volleys from both sides, a typical tactic in medieval battles aimed at weakening the enemy before direct confrontation. After this exchange of archery, the allied forces, composed of Bulgarians, Serbs, and other allies, launch an offensive. Their main strike is directed against the left Ottoman flank, where they exert strong pressure and manage to break through it. The left Ottoman flank fails to withstand this assault and begins to retreat backward.

Nevertheless, the center and right Ottoman wing manage to hold their positions. Particularly active are the Anatolian spahis, who are part of the right Ottoman wing. They launch a counterattack and succeed in repelling the allied left wing, creating serious problems for the allies.

Moreover, the retreating Rumelian azebs and spahis, who had initially been pressed, manage to reorganize and undertake a new offensive. This two-flank pressure from the Ottoman forces forces the allied troops to withdraw. They begin a retreat westward toward the Sitnica River, suffering significant losses during the crossing, as the river becomes a natural barrier that the Ottomans use to pursue and inflict damage.

Afterwards, the allied forces continue their retreat eastward toward the area of Kurušumli, where they attempt to regroup and avoid complete destruction. This move shows that despite heavy losses, the allies are not entirely defeated but are forced to withdraw under the pressure of the Ottoman army.

The battle of Kosovo Field leaves a deep mark not only in historical chronicles but also in the cultural creativity of the region. The Bulgarian writer Konstantin Kostenets, who sought refuge in Serbia, describes the battle in his works. He tells of Miloš Obilić as a “very noble man” who was slandered by envious people before the lord as a traitor. In his text, Kostenets emphasizes that Miloš, to prove his loyalty and bravery, looks for a convenient moment and goes directly to the greatest Ottoman commander. To approach unnoticed, he pretends to flee, which allows him to gain passage and get close to his target. At the decisive moment, Miloš rushes forward and plunges his sword into Sultan Murad I, delivering a fatal blow.

Kostenets’ text also mentions the fortress of Tarnovgrad [Veliko Tarnovo], as well as the city itself, which is called a “fearsome autocrat.” This symbolic image highlights the importance of the city as a center of Bulgarian power and culture, which also falls, killed by the Turks during the course of the Ottoman invasion. This fact illustrates the severe consequences of the battle and the subsequent Ottoman expansion in the region.

On July 15, 1389, in the year 6897 according to the Byzantine calendar, a key battle unfolds in which the forces supporting Prince Lazar initially manage to overpower the opposing troops. These forces, despite fierce rivalry, hold a victory at the beginning of the engagement, demonstrating strong organization and determination on the battlefield. At this critical moment in the battle, the king’s son also joins in, managing to turn the tide of the fight in favor of his side by defeating the enemy. According to the chronicles, the reason for this victory is attributed to divine will – "God so willed it," which emphasizes not only the military success but also the spiritual significance that contemporaries attached to the events. As a result, Prince Lazar and his troops are crowned with a martyr’s wreath, a symbol of their sacrifice and heroism in the battle.

The defeat of the allied forces at the Kosovo field has severe consequences for all the Balkan peoples. After this battle, the Ottoman advance becomes unstoppable, which changes the balance of power in the region and places the independence of the Balkan states under serious threat. In the spring of 1393, the new sultan Bayezid, using this victory, crosses the Balkan range (Stara Planina) and begins the siege of Tarnovgrad – the strongest fortress in the Bulgarian lands at that time. Tarnovgrad is one of the most powerful fortresses in Southeastern Europe, with its fortifications utilizing the naturally inaccessible hills of Tsarevets and Trapezitsa, which represent the two redoubts of the city’s defense. The hill of Tsarevets is especially strongly fortified, its highest point reaching 234 meters. From the rocky massif of Tsarevets down to the Yantra River descend almost vertical, impregnable cliffs between 80 and 100 meters high, and at that time the river was much fuller than it is today, surrounding the hill almost on all sides. The hill is situated like a peninsula, accessible only by a narrow rocky ridge, which is cut by a deep chasm, making the defense extremely difficult for attackers.

During the siege of Tarnovgrad, Tsar Ivan Shishman is located in the fortress of Nikopol, where he likely awaits help from the Hungarian king Sigismund. In this context, Ivan Shishman enters into negotiations with the Hungarian monarch for a joint struggle against the Ottomans. It is planned that the main forces of the Bulgarian and Hungarian armies will concentrate in the fortresses of Nikopol and Drastar (modern Silistra), from where offensive actions towards the Dardanelles will be undertaken. The goal of these actions is to cut off the Ottoman retreat route to Asia Minor, which could change the course of the war and stop the Ottoman advance in Europe. However, these strategic plans remain unrealized, and the siege of Tarnovgrad continues, highlighting the dire situation of the Bulgarian state during this period.

The fortress of Tsarevets is protected by an impressive and massive fortress wall that follows the natural contours of the rocky ridge on which it is situated. This wall forms an irregular triangle, encompassing an area of about 100,000 square meters, which highlights the considerable size and importance of the fortification as the center of the medieval Bulgarian capital.

The thickness of the fortress wall varies between 2.40 and 3.40 meters, and its height reaches approximately 10 meters, according to researchers' estimates. The wall is constructed from rubble stone bonded with mortar, which gives it strength and resistance against sieges and attacks. For additional protection, the wall is reinforced with buttresses and towers located at its corners, which serve both for observation and defensive actions.

Among the towers of Tsarevets, the best preserved is the so-called Baldwin's Tower, which today has been restored and acquired its current appearance after renovation. During its restoration, a model from the tower in the fortress of Cherven was used, which testifies to the effort to preserve the authentic architectural style and functionality of medieval Bulgarian fortifications. Additionally, the northwestern and southeastern fortress walls have been partially restored, contributing to a better understanding of the overall defensive system of the fortress.

There are three main gates for entry into the Tsarevets fortress, each playing a key role in defense and communication with the surrounding terrain. The main gate rises on the rocky ridge that connects Tsarevets with the surrounding area and is triple — each of the three doors is protected by battle towers, which significantly complicates enemy penetration. Before the first door lies the so-called Cut Rock — a crevice in the rocky ridge that serves as a natural barrier. Above this crevice is a hanging movable bridge that can be raised when needed to cut off attackers' access.

The first and third doors of the main gate have been restored at the time of the description, allowing a better understanding of their construction and defensive functions. In the northwestern part of the fortress wall is the so-called Small Gate, which is protected by a covered tower. This tower has also been restored and represents an important element of the defensive system. From the Small Gate descends a path carved into the rock massif, leading to the Yantra River, providing a connection between the fortress and the water source.

By the Yantra River is located a district of the city, which is important for the supply and daily life of the population within the fortress. The southeastern gate connects Tsarevets with the district of foreign merchants, situated on a bend of the river, southeast of the fortified hill. This district is key to the city's economic ties and the maintenance of commercial exchange.

From the southeastern wall of Tsarevets descends a covered corridor-staircase about 300 meters long, leading to the river in the area of the Great Lavra. This corridor ends with a tower-well and has wall thickness of about 1.80 meters, while the width of the steps is 1.50 meters. It serves to supply the fortress with water, providing the defenders with the necessary water during sieges. Moreover, the corridor allows a secret exit from Tsarevets if needed, as it has a side exit located at its lower end, permitting unobstructed egress in case of enemy threat.

In addition to the covered corridor, from the southeastern wall there also descends an uncovered corridor to the Yantra River, which likewise provides water supply to the fortress defenders. This corridor, although uncovered, is an important element of the water supply system and defensive infrastructure of Tsarevets. All these fortifications and facilities demonstrate the complex and well-thought-out defensive strategy that was applied in the construction of the fortress, aiming to ensure maximum protection and resilience during sieges.

The royal palace, located on the Tsarevets hill, occupied an impressive area of about 6,000 square meters and represented the heart of the fortress. It functioned as a citadel, protected by a massive fortress wall crowned with rectangular towers that provided observation and defensive positions. The entrances to this wall were strategically placed to the north and south, both well fortified to prevent easy enemy access. This defense system emphasized the importance of the palace as the center of power and defense in Tarnovo.

At the highest part of Tsarevets stood the Patriarchate, which was also fortified, underscoring its importance both spiritually and strategically. This religious center was inextricably linked to the city's defensive system, demonstrating how seriously the measures for protecting key institutions were taken.

The second hill, known as Trapezitsa, was naturally defended on four sides thanks to the meanders of the Yantra River and the high cliffs surrounding it. This natural protection was supplemented by a fortress wall that followed the contours of the rocky ridge, reinforcing the defensive line. Six gates were built into the wall, each protected by fighting towers, which ensured controlled and secure entrances. The main gate was located on the southern side of the hill, which was likely key for access and communication with the rest of the city.

From Trapezitsa descended a path carved into the rock that led to the Yantra River. This path continued with a bridge at the Church of the Forty Martyrs, which connected the two hills—Trapezitsa and Tsarevets. This connection was of exceptional importance for coordinating defense and the movement of troops and resources between the two fortified zones.

Moreover, fortress walls descended from both hills toward the river, protecting the quarter situated between them. In this quarter, an inner fortress wall was uncovered, rising parallel to the bed of the Yantra River, at a distance of 32 meters from the present-day course. This wall was oriented southeast–northwest and constructed from large roughly hewn semi-processed stones bonded with white mortar. Its thickness reached 2.70 meters, and the facing masonry on both sides was carefully worked, indicating the high quality of construction. The wall’s core was filled with smaller broken stones, and in some places, the wall was preserved up to a height of 3.20 meters.

On the excavated section of this inner wall, four round and three rectangular towers were discovered, which further strengthened the defense. The inner wall was connected with the walls of the hill along the rocky ridge, forming a unified fortification system of Tsarevets. This integrated defense system shows how well planned and executed the city’s defense was.

The quarter of foreign merchants was also protected by a fortress wall located on the western side, which was the most accessible part of the quarter. This wall had a gate for entry, while the other three sides of the quarter were protected by the Yantra River, providing a natural barrier against attackers.

On the Momina Fortress hill rose the Devingrad fortress, which has only been subject to trial excavations. This suggests that although less explored, it was part of the overall defensive system of Tarnovo and contributed to the city’s protection from the eastern side.

The defense of Tarnovgrad during the siege of 1393 was marked by exceptional bravery and determination on the part of its defenders. According to the "Sermon on the Transfer of the Relics of St. Petka to Serbia," the city was described as wondrous and impregnable, fortified with high and strong walls, while its natural defense was reinforced by the steep mountain slopes and high hills surrounding it. This strategic position made its capture extremely difficult, and the Ottoman forces encountered serious resistance.

Inside Tarnovgrad were kept the relics of the venerable saint St. Petka, which were being transferred there for the third time. These holy relics not only held religious significance but also served as a symbol of spiritual and military invincibility for the city's inhabitants. In the "Sermon," the relics are described as an undefeated warrior who inspired courage and hope in the defenders, strengthening their spirit during the harsh days of the siege.

The siege of Tarnovgrad, led by the Ottoman troops, referred to in the sources as barbarians, initially proved unsuccessful. Despite repeated attempts, the Ottomans failed to capture the city immediately, which testifies to the strong and organized defense of the Bulgarian defenders. In an effort to break the resistance, the Ottoman ruler Bayezid resorted to threats and psychological pressure. According to Gregory Tsamblak, Bayezid threatened the defenders with fire, tearing them to pieces, and other torturous deaths, aiming to force them to surrender and end their heroic resistance.

After a three-month persistent and heroic defense, on July 17, 1393, Tarnovgrad fell. The exact circumstances surrounding the Ottomans' entry into the fortress remain unclear, as there are no reliable accounts of how exactly it happened. The "Sermon on the Transfer of the Relics of St. Petka" emphasizes that the fall was unexpected and attributed to sin, which can be interpreted as a hint of betrayal. This motive is also supported by folk traditions that preserve the memory of treachery at the city's fall.

Following the capture of Tarnovgrad, the Ottoman forces turned towards Nikopol, where they also imposed a siege and succeeded in taking the fortress. During the fall of Nikopol, Tsar Ivan Shishman perished, marking an important moment in the Ottoman conquest of Bulgarian lands. After these events, the Ottomans began a systematic and methodical conquest of the territories of the Tarnovo Tsardom, which proved to be prolonged and bloody.

Particularly stubborn resistance was offered by the defenders of several key fortresses and towns, among them Pleven, Vratsa, the fortress of Bozhenishki Urvich near the village of Bozhentsi, and Kostadinovo Kale near the village of Reselets. These places became centers of Bulgarian resistance against the Ottoman invasion. An interesting fact is that on the site of present-day Pleven, a Bulgarian settlement emerged during the Middle Ages, whose population led a particularly intense life during the 12th to 14th centuries, which testifies to the significance of this region during the period of Ottoman expansion.

The fortress Vratsa, also called Vratitsa, rose in a narrow and rocky gorge bearing the same name, which is part of the Zgorigrad Pass. This pass held great strategic significance, as it was the shortest route connecting Northwestern with Southwestern Bulgaria. Situated in the valley of the Leva River, the fortress was located about half a kilometer from the present-day town of Vratsa, emphasizing its role in controlling movement through the gorge. This position made Vratitsa a key point for defense and communications in the region.

After the fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire, which marks a key moment in the Ottoman conquest of the Bulgarian lands, the defense of the Lovech fortress continued to be a symbol of stubborn resistance against the invaders. According to one tradition, the last defender of the Lovech fortress was Kusam Voivode, who refused to surrender to the Ottoman conquerors. He demonstrated exceptional determination and resourcefulness by using a rope ladder to lead the garrison out of the fortress during the night, avoiding capture and ensuring the survival of his fighters.

The reason why the Lovech fortress could no longer be effectively defended was the discovery by the Ottomans of a secret passage leading to the Osam River. This passage was vital for supplying the defenders with water, which was essential for continuing the defense. After the Ottomans managed to penetrate this secret passage, the fortress became vulnerable, and the defenders were forced to retreat. Kusam Voivode led his fighters into the depths of the Balkan range (Stara Planina), where the struggle against the conquerors continued, demonstrating that resistance was not broken with the fall of the fortress.

One year after the conquest of the Second Bulgarian Empire, according to another tradition, the fortress Gradishtsa near the village of Shipka also fell. This fortress was under the command of Angel Voivode, who also distinguished himself with persistence in defense. At the same time, the sub-Balkan fortresses of Krun and Maglizh offered significant resistance to the Ottoman forces, showing that there were still strong centers of Bulgarian resistance in the region.

On the northeastern coast of Bulgaria, the garrison of the Kaliakra fortress also put up stubborn resistance against the Ottoman invaders. The fortress was captured in 1396–1397, but before that, its defenders fought relentlessly. According to one tradition, in a sign of despair and a desire to avoid slavery, 40 maidens with braided hair threw themselves from the high cliffs of Kaliakra into the sea, demonstrating the tragic cost of the conquest and the strength of spirit of the local population.

On the southern Black Sea coast lies the fortress Urdoviza, located on a peninsula near the village of Kiten, about 35 kilometers south of Sozopol. The peninsula on which the fortress is situated is approximately 120 meters long and between 60 and 80 meters wide, with the neck connecting it to the mainland about 40 meters wide. The shores of the peninsula are steep and between 10 and 15 meters high, making the fortress practically inaccessible from the sea and providing natural protection against attacks.

The Shkorpil brothers, famous Bulgarian archaeologists, discovered remains of a fortress wall at Urdoviza. This wall is about 100 paces long and 3 meters thick, built of rubble stone bonded with white mortar mixed with crushed tiles. The fortress wall is crowned with two defensive towers, and in front of it, a deep moat was dug, which further hindered enemy attacks. Remains of this wall can still be seen today, testifying to the importance of the fortress in the past.

Moreover, within the territory of the Urdoviza fortress, there are traces of a breakwater, indicating that it also functioned as a naval base. This underscores its strategic importance for controlling the Black Sea and protecting the southern Bulgarian coast during the Ottoman invasion. All these fortresses and their defenders, despite the fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire, continued to resist and maintain the spirit of Bulgarian independence during the difficult years of the conquest.

The garrison of the fortress Urdoviza offered strong resistance against the Ottoman invaders, who failed to conquer it through military actions. This steadfastness of the defenders forced the Ottomans to negotiate and accept the terms of surrender set by the governor Maria. She insisted on being left with land that a swift horseman could ride around in one day. According to tradition, the sultan himself, who commanded the Ottoman forces, gave his consent to this condition, showing respect for the courage and wisdom of Maria.

The horseman tasked with riding around the lands passed through the territory of 17 villages. When he reached the bay near the fortress, as the tradition goes, both the horseman and his horse were exhausted, and the horse died from overexertion. In memory of this event, the bay was named Horse Bay, or Atliman, as a lasting reminder of the animal’s sacrifice and a symbol of the boundaries of the domain left to Maria. The sultan fulfilled his promise and left the land according to the horseman’s ride, demonstrating that even in times of war, given words and agreements were honored.

At the same time, the Ottomans suffered significant losses in the capture of the fortress Ranuli. This fortress, mentioned in the Hambarli Inscription of Khan Krum, holds great military importance as it guards the only ford in the lower course of the Ropotamo River. It is located about 2 kilometers from the river’s mouth and rises on a peak approximately 100 meters high, which provides it with a strategic advantage for observation and control of the area.

The local population knows the fortress Ranuli by the name Vălchanovoto Kale (Wolf’s Fortress). The fortress wall follows the natural contours of the terrain and encloses an area of about 30,000 square meters. It is built from roughly hewn stone without mortar, which leads historians to attribute it to the pre-Roman period, as this construction method is characteristic of ancient times. Nevertheless, the fortress existed throughout the entire medieval period, which testifies to its long-lasting military and strategic significance.

The Ropotamo River, which blocks the approaches to the fortress from the west, is between 60 and 80 meters wide and 8 to 9 meters deep, making it difficult for enemy forces to cross and further strengthening the defense of Ranuli. Moreover, the river and the bay of St. Paraskeva provide the possibility for mooring sea vessels, and the bay is deep and narrow, reaching close to the fortress from the east. This allows Ranuli to function also as a naval base, increasing its strategic importance in the region.

After the campaign of Amadeus VI of Savoy, the fortresses Mesembria, Anchialos, Pyrgos, Sozopol, and Agapopolis came under the borders of the Byzantine Empire, but in 1453 they were finally conquered by the Ottomans. This year is especially significant, as the Ottomans also captured Constantinople, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and linking the final conquest of the listed fortresses with the fall of the empire’s capital. These events fundamentally changed the political and military map of the Balkans and the Black Sea region.

The fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire at the end of the 14th century caused great alarm not only within the Bulgarian lands themselves but also among the neighboring peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. The situation was especially tense in Greece, Macedonia, and Albania, where Ottoman raids had become more frequent and intensified the sense of immediate danger. These events did not go unnoticed even in more distant parts of Europe, with the Hungarians feeling most threatened, as they realized that after Sultan Bayezid I conquered the Balkan lands, their country would be his next target.

In Hungary, the idea gradually matured to organize a crusade whose main goal was to expel the Ottomans from Europe and halt their advance. This initiative also received the support of the Roman Curia, which gave the campaign not only a military but also a religious and political character. At the head of this coalition stood the Hungarian king and Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, who ruled from 1387 to 1437 and was one of the most influential rulers of his time.

At the end of May 1396, a large army of about 60,000 men gathered in Budapest, intended for a campaign against the Ottomans. The core of this force was the Hungarian troops, numbering around 30,000, who represented the main fighting strength and backbone of the campaign. In addition to them, a significant contingent of about 10,000 French soldiers was commanded by Count Jean de Nevers, known by the nickname Jean the Fearless. He was the son of the Duke of Burgundy and a relative of the French king, which underscored the high rank and importance of the French participation in the crusade.

This coalition of various European forces, united under the leadership of Sigismund and with the support of the Roman Curia, represented a serious attempt to organize a joint military campaign against the growing Ottoman threat. The assembling of such a large army in Budapest was a sign of the determination of the European rulers to oppose the Ottoman advance and to defend their territories and interests in the Balkans and Central Europe.