Battle of Nicopolis

After the Battle of the Maritsa (1371) and the fall of the Tarnovo Tsardom (1393), the Ottoman advance reached the Danube and threatened Central Europe. King Sigismund of Luxembourg of Hungary, whose lands lay directly in the path of the blow, obtained a papal proclamation of a crusade. He assembled a large international army, drawn above all from Hungary and from French and Burgundian knights, joined by Germans and, along the way, other allies.

The crusader army moved down the Danube and reached Ottoman-held Nicopolis (modern Nikopol), which it besieged. The Vidin tsar Ivan Stratsimir, whose lands served as the campaign's base, supported the crusaders and handed over his towns to them — a decision that later proved fatal to him. In September 1396 Sultan Bayezid I, called 'Yıldırım' (the Thunderbolt) for his swiftness, arrived rapidly from the south to relieve the siege.

The clash came on 25 September 1396 before the walls of Nicopolis. The crusader army was hampered by a divided command: the French knights, driven by chivalric honour and a thirst for glory, refused to follow the cautious plan of Sigismund, the only leader among them who understood Ottoman battle tactics. They insisted on striking first and charged on their own. Their initial impetus broke the Ottoman front ranks, but the cavalry spent itself against the infantry and the stakes driven into the ground, and the knights, drawn up the hill, were cut off from the main force.

Bayezid then committed his fresh reserves, among them an allied Serbian contingent under his vassal Stefan Lazarević, and enveloped the disordered crusaders. The divided Christian army was destroyed. Thousands of prisoners were taken and held for ransom — many spent years in Ottoman captivity; a large part of the common prisoners were put to death the following day. King Sigismund himself barely escaped capture and fled down the Danube by ship, making for Constantinople.

The defeat at Nicopolis was the last great international attempt to reverse the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, and its failure echoed painfully across Europe. For Bulgaria the consequences were immediate. Because Ivan Stratsimir had supported the crusaders, after their victory the Ottomans swept into his lands and took Vidin. Thus the Vidin Tsardom — the last independent Bulgarian state — was annexed to the Ottoman domains. With its fall, medieval Bulgarian statehood ceased to exist.

The Battle of Nicopolis confirmed Ottoman dominance in the Balkans for centuries to come and exposed the impotence of a divided Christian world before the new power. Before the century was out the Ottoman state had surrounded Constantinople on all sides, and the fall of the Byzantine capital became only a matter of time. For the Bulgarian lands, Nicopolis marks the definitive end of their medieval independence and the beginning of nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule.

The account that follows sets out the military operations in greater detail, drawing on the Bulgarian Military History of the Middle Ages by D. Angelov and B. Cholpanov.

The campaign at Nikopol gathered a crusader army composed of numerous nationalities and military groups, forming a multinational and diverse alliance. Among the knights close to the king, three stood out — Jean de Bourbon, Henry de Bar, and Philip de Bar. The high command position was held by Marshal Jean de Mengre-Bussico, who later became a key witness and source of information about the events around Vidin and the role of the Bulgarian ruler Ivan Sratsimir.

The castle is situated on the bank of the Danube River on a flat area of about 50 decares and has a quadrangular shape, with each side measuring approximately 70 meters in length. It features two fortress walls – an outer and an inner one. The outer wall is lower, while the inner wall is higher, which enhances the defensive capabilities of the fortress.

On the northeastern face of the outer wall there is a square entrance tower, and near the junction of the northeastern and southeastern faces is a seven-sided tower. This architecture makes the castle impregnable and suggests that it served as the citadel of the fortress, providing a key defensive position in the region.

The inner fortress wall of the fortress at Nicopolis represents a complex and well-thought-out defensive structure that plays a key role in the protection of the castle during the battle. On the northeastern face of this wall, there is one square tower at each corner, and in its middle rises a rectangular gate tower. This configuration is not accidental but is part of the overall defensive concept aimed at providing maximum control and protection of the entrance to the inner courtyard.

The opposite facade of the fortress wall is even more complex and includes a total of five towers. In the southwestern corner stands a rectangular tower, while in the southeastern corner there are two full rectangular towers. In addition, in the middle of the facade there are two more full rectangular towers. This distribution of towers allows for effective flanking and frontal fire against the enemy attempting to breach the fortress defenses.

On the northwestern face of the inner fortress wall, in the middle, rises another square tower. These square fighting towers are about 16 meters high above the current level of the inner courtyard, which gives them a strategic advantage for observation and firing upon approaching enemies. The inner courtyard of the fortress is raised several meters above the base of the fortress wall, which further complicates attackers’ access and increases the effectiveness of the defense.

The construction of the inner fortress wall and the fighting towers is made of rubble, roughly worked stone, which was used for the facing of the wall. The stone blocks are bonded with white mortar mixed with ballast, providing strength and durability to the structure. At the top of the square towers, there are belts of three rows of bricks, which likely serve both as reinforcement and as a decorative element. The joints between the stones are plastered, contributing to better protection against water penetration and other atmospheric influences.

Particularly interesting is the original structural solution of the castle’s entrance. The entrance is made through two gate towers – one square tower on the outer wall and one rectangular tower on the inner wall. The entrances to the two towers are not located on the front but on the northeastern side wall. This means that an attacker, in order to assault the outer entrance, must expose himself to fire from the defenders of the gate tower as well as to flanking fire from the defenders of the adjacent fortress wall.

Once the enemy overcomes the outer gate tower, he comes under crossfire from the defenders of the inner gate tower. This inner tower is not aligned axially with the outer one, which further complicates the attack and increases the risk for the attackers. Moreover, fire also comes from the square tower in the northeastern corner of the castle, as well as from towers on the fortress wall between the two gate towers. If the enemy fails to capture the outer gate tower, he will be fired upon from the rear as well, making attempts to break through extremely dangerous and difficult.

The southwestern tower of the inner fortress wall is partly built with rectangular stone blocks up to 1.5 meters long. Next to it is an intermediate wall constructed in the same manner. These elements are presumed to be remnants of the early Bulgarian fortress, which testifies to the long history of fortifications at this site and their strategic importance over the centuries. This continuity in construction and the use of existing structures is characteristic of medieval fortresses and shows how defensive facilities evolved and adapted according to the needs of the time.

In the immediate vicinity of the fortress of Nikopol, around which fierce battles are being fought, a wide and deep moat has been dug, serving as an important defensive barrier. This moat is not merely a dry obstacle but is flooded, which significantly complicates attempts by enemy forces to overcome it. To facilitate crossing this water barrier, the defenders use a movable bridge that can be swung across the moat, thereby ensuring controlled movement of troops and supplies into the fortress.

After passing through these fortifications, the crusaders continue their march westward, with their main objective being the siege of the fortress of Rakhovo, known among the local population as Kamaka. This fortress is located near Vidin, approximately 500–600 meters west of the present-day town of Oryahovo, and is situated close to the confluence of the Ogosta River with the Danube, which gives it strategic importance for controlling river routes and the surrounding area.

The fortress of Rakhovo has a long history, existing already during the time of the First Bulgarian Empire. In the 12th century, a new fortress was built on the ruins of the old one, whose remains are more substantial and have been preserved to this day. This new fortress was constructed on a hill naturally protected to the east and west by deep ravines, while on the Danube side there is a steep terraced slope, which further complicates any potential assault from that direction.

The shape of the fortress is trapezoidal, measuring approximately 35 by 22 meters, which gives an area of about 750 square meters. Several important architectural elements have been preserved, among which is a partially ruined square tower about 9 meters high. This tower has a base measuring 6 by 6.5 meters, and the thickness of its walls reaches 1.66 meters, indicating its serious defensive function.

Besides the tower, part of the eastern wall of the fortress has been preserved, with a length of 9.20 meters, a width of 2 meters, and a height varying between 0.60 and 1.70 meters. It is assumed that the original height of the fortress walls was about 6.5 meters, which is considerable for a medieval fortress. Excavations have also cleared a fortress wall on the northwest side, measuring 3.60 meters in length, 2 meters in width, and between 0.75 and 1 meter in height, as well as minor remains of the northern fortress wall.

The construction of the fortress is made of rubble stone bonded with white mortar, which is typical for medieval Bulgarian fortress architecture. In a later engraving, three towers of the fortress are depicted, one of which is round, showing that the fortifications were diverse in shape and likely served different defensive functions.

The research and excavations of the fortress of Rakhovo have been conducted systematically, and the results have been published by the archaeologist D. Dimitrova. These studies provide valuable information about the structure and history of the fortress, as well as its significance in the context of the military actions around Nikopol. The siege of Rakhovo by the crusaders is part of a broader military conflict, with control over this fortress being key to securing the route to Vidin and holding positions on the western bank of the Danube.

During the siege of the fortress of Nicopolis, it was surrounded by a deep moat, which served as a natural barrier against the advancing troops. Inside the fortification was a strong Ottoman garrison, which defended itself with great tenacity and determination, fully aware of the strategic importance of their position. This defense significantly hindered the attempts of the allied forces to capture the fortress.

During the course of the Battle of Nicopolis, the intervention of the Bulgarian population proved decisive for the success of the crusader army. The local inhabitants, long subjected to Ottoman rule, rose up against the Ottomans, actively supporting the crusading army that had entered their country. This resistance was not merely passive but expressed in concrete actions that changed the course of military operations in favor of the Christian forces.

One of the key moments was the capture of the fortress that served as a strategic base for the crusaders. The Bulgarians not only expelled the Ottomans from this fortress but also opened its gates to the crusader army, thus facilitating the entry and consolidation of the troops. This active intervention was explicitly noted by the chronicler Sigismund von Herberstein, who in his account emphasized the importance of Bulgarian assistance for the success of the campaign.

Particularly important was the role of the Bulgarian Christian inhabitants in the capture of Oryahovo. The Hungarian king, who led the crusader army, would not have been able to seize the city without their support. The local residents forcibly expelled the Turkish garrison, disarmed it, and surrendered it to the Hungarian king, which allowed the king to occupy Oryahovo with barely 200 soldiers. This fact highlights how decisive the help of the Bulgarians was for the military success.

Reports on the duration of the siege of Oryahovo vary according to different chroniclers. According to Herberstein, the city was taken after a five-day siege, while Busico claims that the crusaders managed to capture it as early as the second day after the assault. Despite the differences in chronology, both authors agree that the occupation of Oryahovo was made possible thanks to the help of the local inhabitants, who disarmed the Ottoman garrison and facilitated the capture of the city.

Similar activity of the Bulgarian population was observed during the siege of Vidin. There, the Bulgarians from the Danubian towns also took an active part in supporting the crusaders, striving to free themselves from foreign Ottoman rule. Their readiness to assist the crusading army that had entered their country was an expression of their deep desire for liberation and a change of the status quo.

Thus, the Bulgarian population not only supported the crusaders but also actively participated in the fighting, expelling Ottoman garrisons, opening fortress gates, and surrendering to the Christian forces. This joint struggle between the local inhabitants and the crusader army was a key factor in the success of the military campaign at Nicopolis and in the temporary liberation of the Bulgarian lands from Ottoman rule.

The allied army, after prolonged marches and battles, reached the fortress of Nikopol, which was placed under their siege. This fortress, located near the Danube River, was of exceptional strategic importance due to its strong defensive position and control over the northwestern edge of the valley, where the modern town of Nikopol now stands. Its location on a high hill with particularly steep slopes towards the river made access extremely difficult, with the only convenient approach being from the western side.

The fortress was encircled by three defensive walls, providing multilayered protection against attackers. The lowest defensive belt surrounded the foot of Kaleto (the fortress hill) and was connected to the eastern gate, which has been preserved to this day, albeit with later reconstructions. From this lowest wall, parts remain with a height between 0.40 and 0.90 meters, attesting to its massiveness and durability. Above it rose a second fortress wall, and on the highest part of the hill, near the periphery, was the third fortress wall, which further strengthened the defenders’ positions.

Particularly impressive was the wall at the northwestern end of the stronghold, preserved at a height of about 4 meters and a thickness of 2.10 meters. This wall was built from rubble stones bonded with mortar mixed with coarse ballast, which provided strength and resilience. The walls also incorporated a wooden embedded network of beams, which likely served for additional reinforcement and flexibility against possible impacts. The facing stones of the walls were carefully worked, indicating high construction craftsmanship and the importance of the fortress.

Insignificant remains of a second fortress are preserved at the foot of Kaleto, suggesting that the fortifications were expanded and improved over time. According to the description by archaeologist Alexander Kuzev, the eastern wall, oriented along a south–north direction, is attached to the rocky slope of the hill, making it naturally protected from that side. This wall has a preserved length of about 5 meters, a height of about 6 meters, and a thickness of 2.60 meters, making it one of the most massive parts of the fortress.

At a distance of 135 paces from the eastern wall, faint traces of the western wall have been found, which is thinner with a thickness of 2.20 meters. This difference in thickness likely reflects the different defensive needs and terrain features of the fortress. Although today the remains of the fortress are insignificant, partial excavations and observations published by E. Manova provide valuable information about the construction techniques and architecture of Nikopol.

The fortress Nikopol is mentioned in the “Bulgarian Apocryphal Chronicle Fortresses Nikopol, Rahovo, and Little Nikopol (Holvnik),” which confirms its historical significance and role in medieval Bulgarian history. The siege of this strong and well-fortified fortress was a key moment in the Battle of Nikopol, as its capture would have opened the way for further military actions and control over important territories in the region.

In the second half of the 14th century, the Nikopol fortress underwent significant expansion and strengthening, which transformed it into a key military and administrative center in the region. This period was particularly critical for Bulgaria, as the country was seriously threatened by the advance of the Ottoman conquerors, who sought to expand their influence in the Balkans. In this context, the Nikopol fortress played a decisive role in the defense of Bulgarian territories and in maintaining connections with important neighboring states such as Wallachia, Serbia, and Hungary, which were also targets of Ottoman ambitions.

The guard fortress of Little Nicopolis, also known as Holŭvnik, is located about one kilometer north of the Danube River, a position resulting from changes in the river's course over the centuries. This strategic location is not far from the town of Turnu Măgurele, highlighting its importance as a protective outpost in the region. According to the research of Alexander Kuzev, the fortress was built by Bulgarian craftsmen, supported by convincing evidence linking its architectural features to the traditions of Bulgarian medieval construction. It dates from the 13th or 14th century and was part of the borders of the Tarnovo Tsardom until its fall under Ottoman rule, making it a witness to key historical events in Bulgarian history.

The fortress has the shape of an irregular polygon, as described by Kuzev, characteristic of defensive structures from this period, adapted to the terrain and military needs. It is surrounded by a moat six meters wide and two and a half meters deep, serving as the first line of defense against attackers. The moat has vertical walls lined with masonry of roughly hewn facing stones, and its fill consists of broken stones bonded with mortar mixed with ballast, providing stability and durability to the construction.

The inner wall of the moat has a perimeter of 156 meters and rises above the surrounding terrain, representing the fortress's first defensive line. In the northeastern part above the moat is a drawbridge, which likely served to control access and allow rapid closure in case of danger. On the southern part of the fortress, the inner wall of the moat adjoins the inner fortress wall, reinforcing the defensive system in that direction.

The southern part of the fortress is crowned by one quadrangular and one triangular tower, which probably served both for observation and defensive purposes. About four meters from the moat rises a fortress wall that was originally round. This initial fortress wall was reinforced with projecting semicircular solid towers, each measuring two meters in length and width, spaced at regular intervals, typical of medieval defensive structures that provided better protection and the ability to fire upon attackers.

Later, a wall 2.5 meters thick was added to the fortress wall, covering the semicircular towers and giving the wall a polygonal shape with nine sides, each between 11.5 and 15 meters long. This modification significantly increased the thickness of the fortress wall, which reached between 4.5 and 6.5 meters, strengthening the defensive capabilities of the structure.

On the southern section of the fortress wall, on the inside, there is a rectangular tower measuring 4.5 by 6 meters, which likely served as an observation and defensive point. In the center of the fortress rises an impressive tower about 10 meters in diameter, with walls three meters thick and a preserved height reaching up to seven meters. This central tower was a key element in the defensive system, providing the ability to observe the surroundings and defend during a siege.

All these architectural and defensive features of the fortress of Little Nicopolis testify to its strategic importance and the high level of construction technique used by Bulgarian craftsmen in the 13th and 14th centuries. It was an important element in the defense of the Tarnovo Tsardom and played a key role in the context of military actions and political events related to the Battle of Nicopolis and the subsequent developments.

At the beginning of June 1395, the Hungarian King Sigismund began the siege of the fortress of Little Nicopolis, also known as Holovnik. This fortress held strategic importance, as its capture would facilitate further military operations against the larger Nicopolis fortress. After a prolonged and persistent siege, Little Nicopolis fell in the second half of July of the same year. This success provided the allied forces with a stable rear and the opportunity for further operations in the area, while simultaneously strengthening their positions before the Nicopolis fortress.

Despite the capture of Little Nicopolis, the allied forces' attempts to take the Nicopolis fortress through direct assaults remained unsuccessful. The strong defensive fortifications and the determination of the defenders prevented rapid penetration. In response, the allies adopted a more complex tactic – they began digging two underground passages aimed at the fortress walls. According to the chronicler Busiko, this process took about 15 days, demonstrating the seriousness and duration of the preparations for the assault.

At this critical moment, the Ottoman army arrived at Nicopolis, led by Sultan Bayezid I, who ruled from 1389 to 1402. The Ottoman forces occupied the heights about 5 to 6 kilometers south of Nicopolis, which gave them a strategic advantage and the ability to observe and control the area. According to the German chronicler Schiltberger, the size of the Ottoman army reached an impressive 200,000 men. This figure is also confirmed by intelligence gathered by the voivode Mircho Stari, as well as by some Ottoman sources. Nevertheless, modern research suggests that the actual number of Ottoman troops was closer to 120,000 to 130,000 men, which still represented a significant military force.

The Ottoman army was organized into three battle lines and one reserve. The first line included 20,000 azebs – heavily armed infantry who served as the first striking force. The second line was the central and strongest one, with 20,000 janissaries and Anatolian troops positioned at its center. The right flank of the second line was occupied by Rumelian cavalry, while the left flank was held by Anatolian spahis, providing flexibility and mobility to the battle formation.

The third battle line consisted of 30,000 janissaries in the center and 15,000 spahis on each flank. On the extreme left flank, 5,000 Serbs were deployed to supplement the forces of the third line. All troops in this line were directly subordinated to the Sultan, emphasizing their importance and role as a reserve and striking force. An additional 25,000 men were held in reserve, ready to join the battle if necessary.

The Ottoman army also possessed bombards – heavy artillery pieces that were a novelty in Balkan warfare at the time. However, the sources do not mention the specific location of these bombards during the siege and battle, leaving questions about their role and effectiveness.

The defense of the Ottoman troops was reinforced with sharpened stakes driven into the ground and inclined forward, placed in front of the second battle line. This tactic was intended to slow down and discourage enemy attacks, especially cavalry charges, and to provide additional protection to the main forces. This complex of measures and organization shows that Sultan Bayezid I had prepared his army for a decisive battle, employing both numerical superiority and tactical innovations.

The command of the allied forces at Nikopol was taken by surprise by the sudden appearance of the large Ottoman army, despite signals of its approach having been received as early as its arrival at Tarnovo. This unexpected situation affected the deployment of the allied forces, which were organized into two battle lines in order to effectively oppose the Ottoman threat.

In the first line were positioned the French, who displayed considerable overconfidence and even boasted that if the sky were to fall, they would hold it up on the tips of their spears, illustrating their high self-esteem. The central part of the second battle line was occupied by the Hungarians and other Western European troops, while its right flank was entrusted to the Croats and the left to the Vlachs. Additionally, a French detachment under the command of Duke Nober was left to guard the positions facing the fortress of Nikopol, underscoring the strategic importance of the stronghold and the necessity of its defense.

The French were the first to charge, decisively scattering the azis of the first Ottoman battle line. They then directed their efforts against the janissaries positioned in the second line. Stakes had been driven into the ground before the Ottoman battle formation, forcing the soldiers to dismount and continue the fight on foot. Moreover, many of the Ottoman horses were killed or wounded by the densely falling arrows, which, according to eyewitness accounts, were so numerous that “neither hailstones nor rain fall so thickly from the sky.”

As a result, a fierce hand-to-hand combat began, in which the French held the advantage thanks to their sturdy protective armor that shielded them from blows. Nevertheless, the Ottomans suffered serious losses, with around 10,000 men killed or wounded during the battle.

Meanwhile, the Slavs on the right flank of the second allied line began an advance but were repelled with heavy losses. In response, the sultan ordered the troops of the second line to withdraw, and the Ottoman third line, which had failed to withstand the pressure from the French, also began to retreat.

The French managed to reach a height behind which the Ottoman cavalry reserve was concealed, but this isolated them from the main allied forces, which proved fatal. They were attacked simultaneously from the front and the flanks, forcing them to begin a retreat. Ultimately, they were encircled and routed, with some killed or wounded and others taken prisoner. This development of the battle at Nikopol demonstrated how decisive tactical deployment and coordination between different parts of the army were, as well as how dangerous the French overconfidence was under the conditions of a fierce and dynamic fight.

At the decisive moment of the battle at Nicopolis, the Ottoman forces launched an offensive against the main allied troops, composed of various European units. Under the heavy pressure of the enemy, the Croatian and Wallachian contingents failed to hold their ground and began to retreat. This withdrawal was particularly dangerous, as it exposed the flanks of the troops positioned in the center of the second battle line, seriously threatening the entire defensive position of the allies. Nevertheless, the flanking units showed considerable resilience and managed to hold back the Ottoman pressure for some time.