Written sources from the period of the Second Bulgarian Empire provide limited information about residential architecture, mostly general descriptions of houses in Bulgarian towns by chroniclers of the Third and Fourth Crusades. More detailed data comes from the account book of the treasurer of Count Amadeus VI of Savoy, who in 1366 rented a wealthy house in Mesembria featuring a bath, fireplace, several rooms, and storage spaces plastered with lime. Boyar houses in Tarnovo are mentioned in the hagiographies by Gregory Tsamblak but without architectural details.
Archaeological excavations over recent decades in Tarnovo, Lovech, Cherven, Shumen, Karvuna, and other medieval sites have provided a fuller picture of housing types, their sizes, construction materials and techniques, as well as the daily life of their inhabitants. Houses are classified into two main types based on their degree of submersion: semi-subterranean dwellings (semi-dugouts) and above-ground houses. Semi-dugouts are rectangular, measuring about 6–8 meters long and 4–5 meters wide, with floors of leveled sterile earth and wooden roof structures covered with vegetation and soil. They were heated by stoves built into the inner wall, sometimes with smoke channels, and often had a small vestibule. Around them are pits used for grain storage and refuse.
Semi-dugouts were favored by the poor due to lower construction costs and good insulation during harsh winters. They are found on flat or sloping terrain, oriented according to the slope, with spaces between them serving as streets, sometimes paved with small stones. Their small size and discomfort suggest inhabitants spent much time outside the dwelling.
Above-ground houses have been uncovered in Tarnovo, Cherven, Lovech, Shumen, and elsewhere. Their floors are at or slightly above ground level, made of leveled or compacted sterile earth, occasionally covered with sand or brick slabs. Walls are built of rubble stone bonded with gray-black clay, sometimes only the foundations are stone while upper parts are wooden frameworks with wattle and daub. Roofs are wooden, covered with tiles, sand slabs, or vegetation.
Above-ground houses vary in size and layout—single-room, two-room, and rarely three-room plans—with larger houses belonging to wealthier families. The second room often served as a vestibule to retain heat and expand living space. Three-room houses with upper floors are typical for affluent citizens and boyars. The layouts adapt to uneven terrain, avoiding the L-, T-, or U-shaped plans common in earlier periods.
Houses are arranged along narrow, winding streets, sometimes unpaved, with foundations often dug up to 0.6 meters deep. Finds of pottery shards, iron knives, bone artifacts, jewelry, and coins indicate inhabitants were mostly craftsmen with modest means. Heating was provided by hearths, built stoves, or braziers.
Social distinctions are reflected in housing: the poor lived in semi-dugouts and wooden huts; the middle class in above-ground houses with stone foundations; and boyars and high clergy in large, multi-room, multi-story buildings with fortifications. Boyar residences formed complexes with courtyards enclosed by stone walls, including residential and utility parts, and small churches for worshippers. These were built on convenient terrain with higher-quality materials and techniques, such as white mortar and stone slab floors.
An example is the boyar complex on Tsarevets hill in Tarnovo from the mid-14th century, featuring a three-part house, courtyard, and outbuildings. The complex was fortified with stone walls and a defensive tower and was likely burned during the Ottoman siege in 1393. Similar complexes near the Small Gate of Tsarevets include several buildings arranged around a small courtyard, also with upper floors and stone foundations.
The primary building material was rubble stone, often used without further shaping, with larger, more regular stones selected for foundations. Clay from gray-black soil served as mortar for common houses, while wealthier buildings used white lime mortar. Clay plastering was common, but whitewashing was rare, mentioned only in the wealthy house rented by Count Amadeus in Mesembria. Bricks were seldom used, likely due to cost and scarcity.
Wood was widely used in walls and roof structures. Large forged iron nails and U-shaped iron clamps secured beams in some houses. Roofs were covered with tiles, sand slabs, or vegetation, depending on the occupants' economic means.
Residential architecture from the 12th to 14th centuries reflects social stratification and economic capacity, as well as the influence of terrain and historical conditions. It is diverse, with clearly defined types and layouts shaping the appearance of medieval Bulgarian towns and neighborhoods, especially in the capital Tarnovo.
In conclusion, the residential architecture of the Second Bulgarian Empire is complex and varied, comprising two main types—semi-dugouts and above-ground houses, the latter subdivided into those built of durable and perishable materials. The social status of inhabitants is evident in the size, construction, and decoration of houses, while archaeological finds provide valuable insights into the daily life of medieval Bulgarians.